Abstract: This thesis focuses on the relationship between young people who affiliate with alternative subcultures and self-harm and/or suicide. Alternative subcultures can be described as groups that are distinct from 'mainstream' cultures. Affiliation with such groups can be broadly defined as having a strong collective identity to a group with specific values and tastes, typically centred around music preference, clothing, hairstyles, make-up, tattoos and piercings (Greater Manchester Police; GMP, 2013; Moore, 2005). Some alternative subcultures have also been associated with 'dark, sinister and morbid' themes, such as Goths, Emos, and Metallers (Young, Sproeber, Groschwitz, Preiss, & Plener, 2014). Self-harm can be defined as the deliberate act of harming oneself, with or without suicidal intent. This commonly involves cutting and self-poisoning (NICE, 2013). Other behaviours that can be described using this term include non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI; the intentional destruction of body tissue without suicidal intent) and suicidal behaviours such as suicidal ideation and attempts (self-harm with some intent to die; Klonsky & Muehlenkamp, 2007; Nock, Borges, Bromet, Cha, Kessler, & Lee, 2008).
Some would argue that NSSI is distinct from self-harm, and as such it features as a disorder in the DSM-V as Non-Suicidal Self-Injury Disorder (NSSID; APA, 2013), however there remains some controversy over the latter (Kapur, Cooper, O'Connor, & Hawton, 2013). The associations between alternative subgroup affiliation and self-harm and/or suicide were explored through a systematic review and empirical research study using quantitative methodology. It is well documented in the literature that the prevalence of self-harm and suicide is particularly high in adolescents and young adults, with suicide being one of the leading causes of death in this population (Hawton, Saunders, & O'Connor, 2012; WHO, 2014). Self-harm has become a clinical and public health concern with up to 30,000 adolescents receiving hospital treatment each year (Hawton, Rodham, & Evans, 2006) and prevalence rates rising to between 7-14% for young people in the UK (Hawton & James, 2005; Skegg, 2005; Swannell, Martin, Page, Hasking, & St John, 2014).
Minority groups are another population who appear to have elevated rates of self-harm, including Lesbian Gay Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT; Jackman, Honig, & Bockting, 2016), ethnic minorities (Bhui, McKnezie, & Rasul, 2007) and alternative subcultures (Young et al., 2014). However, there is a paucity of research into the latter population. This presented a gap to conduct a systematic review of the available literature in an attempt to understand the association between alternative subculture affiliation and self-harm and suicide. Chapter 1 describes the systematic process taken in an attempt to understand the links between alternative subculture affiliation and both self-harm and suicide. Ten studies were included which focused on self-harm and/or suicide and alternative identity through subculture affiliation (e.g. Goth) or music preference (e.g. Heavy Metal). The results indicated that there is an association between alternative subculture affiliation and self-harm and suicide, though the lack of research in the area and methodological limitations impact on the extent to which the underlying mechanisms can be understood.
Leading on from the systematic review, Chapter 2 presents the empirical study which investigated the factors that might contribute to the increased risk of NSSI in alternative subcultures, specifically focusing on variables that have been found to be linked to NSSI in young people; emotion dysregulation, depression, identity confusion and exposure to self-harm. The aim of this study was to increase our understanding of the mechanisms involved that might explain this increased risk of NSSI. Alternative subcultures were found to be at a greater risk of NSSI in comparison to affiliations with other subcultures, though this association lessened when the other variables were accounted for. A key predictor of NSSI in this population was emotion dysregulation. The findings highlight the importance of raising awareness of the potential risk of self-harm/suicide in alternative subcultures in order to create a greater understanding and direct resources appropriately.

Abstract: In this thesis I will examine relationships between metal music and community participation and the mental well-being of so-called “emerging adults” within these communities. Building upon previous research on these relationships, I examine how emerging adult mental well-being is affected – both positively and negatively – by engagement and involvement in metal music communities. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, I employ ethnographic fieldwork, person-centered interviews, and survey methods to describe how not just metal music but other “ritual” activities of metal music culture enact euphoric and also sometimes potentially detrimental effects on the mental health of emerging adults within these communities. Through these methods, I aim to detail how in a paradoxical sense the chaos and aggression inherent in metal music can confer therapeutic calm to individuals through identification with the music, the group, and the performances conducted within these metal music communities.
The introductory Chapter One will first serve to provide an overview of what is exactly meant when describing heavy metal music communities, as ambiguities exist not only in the common understanding of the subculture, but also in the academic literature. In addition to this, a brief history of metal music communities will be discussed, detailing public perceptions, stigmas, and moral panics associated with the music and its fans. The chapter will be closed with a discussion of the research site, scope, and overall aims of the study, namely to provide greater insights into the mental health and well-being of emerging adults within these music scenes. Chapter Two consists of a review of existing literature on this subject, accounting for research within psychological anthropology, sociology, public health, popular music studies, and adolescent and emerging adult psychology. This Chapter will describe not just previous studies on heavy metal music communities, but should also provide a foundation on which this current study rests. Drawing upon literature and theory from these fields, the question of emerging adult mental health within these music scenes can be better understood, not just in terms of accuracy from a scholarly perspective, but also driven by emic perspective from the field.
In seeking answers to these questions, Chapter Three will discuss the methodology and research design of this study. Attention will be given to the study population, site, locales, and scope and the rationale for using particular methods employed in this study. Chapter Four follows, detailing the analyses of data generated from the field and the results gathered throughout each step of research. Results will be described in both quantitative and qualitative terms, hoping to thus better clarify this study’s central question. Limitations of the research will be described in the concluding segments of this chapter. Finally, Chapter Five will discuss the results of this study in relation to theory and previous research, future impacts and considerations in this field, and concluding remarks regarding the relationship between metal music and the mental health of emerging adults.

Abstract: The Sex Pistols’ 1976 anthem, “Anarchy in the UK,” memorialized an ongoing relationship between anarchism and punk rock music. Although scholars of punk music have long documented the relationship between leftist or progressive politics in punk music scenes, they have not interrogated the content and sources of anarchist politics, often taking for granted the relationship between anarchism and punk. This dissertation examines the anarchist politics of a particular genre of punk, called “crust punk,” which is a blend of punk and heavy metal. Like most music subcultures, the crust punk scene is much more than musical sounds; it is associated with a particular lifestyle as well. Crust punks’ choices to drop out of society and live in squats or on the streets, I argue, are political. This dissertation combines ethnomusicological methods with a field of study called “political epistemology” from political science that seeks to understand the origins and composition of political ideas. I combine these two approaches to examine crust punk political ideas: where they come from, how they are shared within the scene, and in what ways they can be considered “anarchist.” I conclude that crust punk represents a form of what I theorize as “vernacular anarchism” that arises from precarious forms of existence, is formulated in everyday life experiences, and is given substance through affective and emotional responses to the poetics of crust punk song texts.